The influence of borrowing on English vocabulary extends beyond simply adding new words. Borrowed terms can sometimes reshape existing words or grammatical structures. For instance, the influx of French vocabulary after the Norman conquest of England (1066 AD) impacted English pronunciation – silent letters became more common (e.g., “knight” from Old English “cniht”[1]) [2, p. 9]. Similarly, the influence of Latin can be seen in the creation of many verb conjugations ending in “-ate” (e.g., “calculate,” “demonstrate”)[1].

Borrowed words often act as cultural ambassadors, carrying with them nuances of the donor language. Consider the word “sushi,” borrowed from Japanese[1]. It not only refers to the dish itself but also evokes a specific cultural experience of Japanese cuisine. Similarly, words like “fjord” (Norwegian) or “siesta” (Spanish)[1] transport us to specific geographical locations and cultural practices.

Language contacts and interactions between people in all spheres lead to the emergence of new concepts and features not only in the way of life, but also in the linguistic environment. Different cultures mutually borrow phenomena and concepts; languages – their definitions. Thus, thanks to the borrowing of vocabulary from different languages, the cultures and languages of different peoples are enriched.

The topic of borrowings has long been of great interest to linguists and is studied in detail by them. It is especially relevant for the English language, in which the process of borrowing occurs most intensively. For several decades, English has been an international language and linguistic interaction and exchange of cultural characteristics most often take place in English. According to statistics, about 70 percent of English vocabulary is made up of borrowed words, and only 30 percent of words are native English[2, p. 23].

Some borrowed words in English are no longer perceived as foreign, since they were borrowed quite a long time ago and have already managed to be completely assimilated into the language. As a result, determining their origin is a great difficulty even for a translator.

The development of the lexical composition of the English language was mainly influenced by borrowings from Old French and Latin. The Scandinavian languages also influenced the vocabulary of the English language.

A significant number of borrowings in English are from the Latin language: from the Latin “vinum” the English “wine” was formed, the English word “butter” came from the Latin “būtyru”.

Linguists identify the following reasons for borrowing: intralinguistic and extralinguistic[3, p. 41].

Intralinguistic reasons:

1. the absence of the concept of a designated object or phenomenon in the receiving language.
2. incompleteness or incorrectness of the name of an object or phenomenon present in the recipient language.

Extralinguistic reasons:

1. socio-psychological: supplementing a lexical unit with meanings that are missing in the target language; For example, the French word “boutique,” which means “a small store in a prestigious area selling expensive goods,” and the Latin word “emporium,” which means “a large shopping center,” are used to indicate the prestige of a given store or outlet.
2. the increase in intercultural communications and the process of globalization contribute to the emergence of a large number of internationalisms.

There are several ways to transfer borrowings. Among the main methods of translation, there are four groups: transliteration, transcription, tracing and semantic borrowing[2, p. 31].

Transliteration is a type of borrowing that preserves the spelling of a foreign word. The word is read according to the rules of reading the native language: zebra (zebra).

Transcription is a type of borrowing in which the sound form of a word is borrowed, sometimes slightly modified: default.

Calque is a method in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word are borrowed. Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression (the translation of the word Vaterland by the tracing method gave the English tracing paper Fatherland).

Semantic borrowing is the borrowing of a new meaning to a word already existing in the language. This type of borrowing occurs in closely related languages.

The choice of one translation method or another depends on several factors: the degree of readiness of the reader, the scope of translation and the style of the text. For example, when translating borrowed terminology, the translator must adhere to maximum accuracy; the main goal when translating borrowings in fiction is to convey the semantic meanings of words, and when translating neologisms it is often necessary to reveal the meaning of the word. The translator’s task is to choose the most appropriate translation method that will most accurately convey the meaning of the word.

Language borrowing is a testament to the interconnectedness of cultures and the ever-evolving nature of language itself.  By understanding the reasons behind borrowing and the different methods used to incorporate new words, we gain a deeper appreciation for the fascinating tapestry of human communication.

1. Adams, Christine. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (2014).
2. McMahon, April M. Language Contact, Creolization and Genetic Linguistics (2002).
3. Melchers, Gunnel, & Warren, Paul (Eds.). Borrowing and Productivity (2011).

Все статьи автора «author»