Translation is creative work that involves understanding of the original text, formulation of mental representation of the meaning, and rendering the text in another language. Any translation is the creation of a new text. Translation of fiction is one of the most difficult types of translation.  That can be explained by the tasks translators have to face. Features of fiction translation are conditioned by the specificity of texts of such a kind. Reproduction of the author’s style, rendering the pragmatic impact on the readers, preservation of the aesthetic effect of the original text – are the major problems of translation of fiction.

Translation replaces the original text for people, who do not know the source language. For majority of people original texts exist only through their translated versions. That is the source of other problems, that translators face.  Translation should render the author’s idea, the fiction reality, created by the author. It is difficult for any person to stay neutral, but translators are to render the text exactly as it was written, without adding their own remarks, opinions or attitude. Translated texts and original versions should evoke the same feelings and emotions in their readers. Translation of fiction should also make aesthetic effect on its readers.

As translation theory developed, two translation strategies were singled out – foreignization and domestication.  Domestication is the strategy that implies the minimization of the ‘foreign’ component of the text. A text acquires the cultural traits of the target language. Texts, translated by domestication, do not look like translated texts, but like original ones, created by means of the target language. Cultural differences are obliterated.

Foreignization is an absolutely different approach that is based on the idea that foreign cultural values should not be minimized.  Cultural norms of the source language should be conveyed in translation. Foreignization, though being the preferable strategy of translation, should not be the only way of translating texts. Sometimes applying of domestication is necessary, as any translator should take the abilities of the translation recipients into consideration. Foreignization should not be overused, translations that contain too much foreign components are the reflections of cultural stereotypes and prejudices, this also leads to domestication of translated texts.

The difficulties in the perception of a translated text are caused mainly by the fact that the known language means turn out to be insufficient for the adequate understanding of another linguistic world-image. The same notions in different languages have various expressions with dissimilar semantics. Some notions do not have any reflection in another language. Lexical systems of languages possess the most considerable differences, such as the peculiarities of denotation, semantics, and cultural realia. Realia are the words that denote special features of culture, everyday life, folklore and historical epochs of cultures, within they exist.  Belonging to only one culture, they do not have any equivalents in the other.

Nevertheless, the main difficulty is not the translation of words, but rendering depth of the original text content. Each text of fiction has a certain reticence, implicit meaning, the rendering of which is a challenge for a translator. These are the questions studied by pragmatics.

Evidently, the translation and the original text are not identical. Translation is the rendering of the original, that’s a version of the text, interpreted by a translator. Each new translation is a separate version of the translation. The most provocative formulation is that the translation actually creates the original text. This statement, though being arguable, is quite reasonable. First of all because there’s no reality, that does not go through the perception of a person. Each interpreter has his own idea of the original text.

The discrepancies of the original and the translation are considered in the theories of translatability and untranslatability respectively. The theory of untranslatability is based on Leibniz’s idea that a language is a means of a thought. The extreme realization of the theory is the principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world, their world view, or otherwise influences their cognitive processes.

Opposite views can be observed in the theory of complete translatability. The theory is based o the principle that reality is one for everyone.  It assumes that any object or phenomena of reality can be expressed in any language.

At present times both theories are being criticized. Scientists adhere to the concept of partial translatability. They divide translatability into cultural and linguistic. Linguistic untranslatability is the impossibility of finding word-equivalents due to different linguistic systems. Cultural intranslatabilty is the absence of certain cultural notions and realia. Cultural intranslatabilty is extralinguistic intranslatabilty.  Cultural intranslatability is one of the issues of translation of fiction. Fiction is characterized by frequent usage of words, denoting objects and phenomena of everyday culture. Fiction expresses all the peculiarities of the nation. Fiction is a “mirror, in which lives of people that speak one language and are a one nation are reflected”.

Adequacy of translation is the most important requirement to translated texts. Equivalence is one of the central issues in translation study. Its definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation theory have caused heated controversy. Various definitions of equivalence are suggested, as equivalence is viewed from different approaches. 

Some theorists argue that translators deal with 2 different cultures at the same time. From this point of view, translation is considered as a transfer of the message from the source language to the target language. This approach seems to be the most reasonable, as it implies also a pragmatic, semantic and functionally oriented equivalence of translated text and the original.

Equivalent translation can be called adequate translation if we add to ‘equivalence’ evaluative meaning.

The theories of possibilities to achieve equivalence in translation vary. According to linguistic relativity hypothesis, the only equivalence that can be achieved is of a general functional kind.  Such approach is similar to basic ideas of the theory of untranslatability. “Appropriate meanings in the target language can neither be accessed nor reproduced by the translator, because words across languages never exactly correspond as lexical items because they encode different semantic features and enter into different sense relations with other words.” (Juliane House, p.39) To support this idea, translation theorists also consider the differences of grammar. They say that grammatical forms inevitably change in translation, the meaning, that is expressed in definite grammatical forms of the original text is also lost.

A translated text can never be fully identical to the original, due to various reasons. It can only be more or less equivalent to it. Within translation of fiction, equivalence deals not only with rendering plot and information, but also with rendering the emotive component, pragmatic effects.

Experienced translators state that there are some additional points when making an agreement about the translation of some documents [1]. These points include detailing of the following clients’ needs: deadline of translation and target language; e-mail address that will be used as a final destination of an accomplished translated version; the necessary format of the text; what text should be translated firstly; the necessity of translation some additional points (tables, graphs, charts, footers etc.); assignment of the translation (should it be in the form of a presentation, site page or something similar).

An experienced translator can evaluate the scope of the given source text even if it is presented in an uncustomary format. It is very important to have such an experience because it will help to avoid emergency work.

In fact, unfortunately, an ordinary translator gets only a source text and information about its deadline, and managers in translation agencies don’t have enough time to discover all these facts properly. So, the only way to simplify the work process for a translator is to communicate with the client by phone.

Adequacy of translation is a voluminous phenomenon, which includes not only the Skopos  of a source text, but also all additional demands and extra-conditions: special terminology, professionalisms, change in a language through time, stylistic connotation of the target text, orientation upon the audience or only one receiver of the text [2].

One of the most important, sophisticated and tricky translation directions is medical translation.

Medical texts are initially very difficult for understanding. They have such stumbling points for a translator like: medical professionalisms; necessity of being consulted by medical specialists of the widest range; not knowing about how, when and where to reveal the meaning of some polysemantic words.

Translation of medical texts and references is one of the most required types of translation nowadays. This type of translation demands thorough work with dictionaries and manuals, because imagination must be excluded here. The dependence of a diagnosis and treatment on a proper translation is obvious, so a translator understands the whole responsibility and importance of an adequate translation.

At the same time medical texts which are fully equipped with special terms can be understood and translated with the help of various reference books, manuals, dictionaries and textbooks that are presented in a wide range in any library, e-library, book store.

It can be rather interesting to work with such text because the process of understanding medical issues, diagnoses, innovations and discoveries can be very useful for broadening background, helpful in everyday life, care of relatives and friends.

The minuses of medical texts translation lie in the variability of different terms and shortenings, Latin borrowings etc; lots of negative information that can badly influence sensitive persons. Of course, there are lots of things that can be repeated; they simplify the translation process but the speed in such a translational type is rather slow, because every term should be decoded and checked thoroughly.

The most difficult genres in medical translation are: medical tests, new medical equipment, dentistry texts etc.

Modern translation is so complicated that a translator cannot achieve the sufficient level of competence in it through all his/her life and career. He/she cannot relax and enjoy his professional qualification; any knowledge will be useful in present and future work. Knowledge is always insufficient [1].

Here the question arises about the necessity of acquiring the second educational qualification. It would be helpful in the professional translator’s activity only in the case when a translator specifies on this exact sphere of knowledge. In other case this professional qualification will disappear or will take only 10-20 % of activity [1].

There is also a point in the special attitude of graduates with the second diploma. It is not a rule, but very often people who have the second educational qualification show negligence in the translation. Modern realias influence the quality of education, especially the second degree.

Experienced translators think that acquiring the 2^nd education resembles attending educational courses. So, it doesn’t guarantee high level of competence in translation.

Medical universities include educational program, which contains training upon specified subjects and foreign languages as well. It is very important for medical students to show good knowledge in metalinguistic field. Latin, English, German, French, Spanish, Chinese languages, – knowledge in this sphere helps doctors to feel confident and independent in every business trip and at any qualification exam.

It is easy to study and practice foreign languages at medical universities because there are a lot of possibilities to practice knowledge: in the practical skills’ centers for meddies, during local internship and abroad.

There are so many events that help to improve knowledge of foreign languages at medical universities. For example, students of Karaganda state medical university can attend special classes, clubs and conferences which are aimed at summarizing profound knowledge of foreign languages.

The thematic scope of such events is closely connected with medical terminology, innovations and postulates of medicine.

So, we have a hypothesis that it would be very useful to create special courses at medical universities, which will have several directions of work:

• Speaking clubs with native speakers, aiming at improvement of  students’ knowledge;
• Consulting center for translators;
• Help with the decoding of medical handwritings; shortenings etc.;
• Organizing of academic mobility for students and teachers of the university.

These centers can be registered in the function of educational institutions submitting to the Ministry of education of the state. Any translator or interpreter in the case of misunderstanding or when looking for a consultation would ask professional advice from people who are in direct connection with this sphere of knowledge and activity.

Such centers may be useful not only for translators of medical texts, but also for people who work with any other field of technical texts’ translation.

Defining Translation Errors

A translation error is a significant inaccuracy or deviation from standard language norms, affecting the transmission of the original text’s meaning. To understand what constitutes a translation error, it is essential to identify what constitutes correct translation.

Translation is broadly defined as the transfer of text content from one language to another. A core requirement of this process is to convey the original’s meaning accurately. Violations of this requirement—semantic distortions, stylistic deviations, or logical misinterpretations—are perceived as errors.

Classification of Translation Errors

Translation errors can be categorized based on language levels and the underlying reasons for their occurrence. This article adopts N. K. Garbovsky’s classification, which identifies four primary causes of translation errors:

1. Insufficient Knowledge of the Source Language

Limited understanding of the source language can lead to inaccuracies in interpreting its meaning. For example, the word “comprehensive” in a scientific context might be mistranslated as “всеобъемлющий” instead of “комплексный.”

2. Insufficient Mastery of the Target Language

Inadequate proficiency in the target language can result in awkward constructions or poor word choices, impacting the clarity and coherence of the translation.

3. Lack of Cognitive Expertise

Misunderstanding technical or specialized terms due to limited knowledge in the subject area can lead to inaccuracies. For instance, mistranslating technical jargon in scientific texts is a common issue.

4. Failure to Understand Authorial Style

Ignoring or misinterpreting the original author’s unique style can lead to stylistic inaccuracies, distorting the tone and intent of the original text.

Types of Translation Errors

Interlingual and Intralingual Interference

Translation errors often arise from interference, which can be:

- Interlingual Interference: Influence of the translator’s native language on the target language.

- Intralingual Interference: Structural peculiarities of the target language causing inaccuracies.

Logical, Lexical, and Stylistic Errors

Errors can also be linked to specific linguistic levels:

- Logical Errors: Errors in conveying logical relationships or ideas, often due to misunderstandings in syntactic organization.

- Lexical Errors: Incorrect use of words or expressions, including mistranslations of idiomatic phrases.

- Stylistic Errors: Failures in preserving the author’s tone, style, or genre, such as rendering formal text in an overly casual manner.

Distribution of Translation Error Types

Semantic Distortions

Semantic distortions occur when the translator fails to grasp the meaning of words, phrases, or concepts. For instance, in Bulgakov’s *The Master and Margarita*, the description of a hat resembling a “pie” was mistranslated in English, omitting the metaphor entirely.

Causes of Translation Errors

Translation errors stem from various factors, including:

- Insufficient education or training of the translator

- Lack of cognitive experience or subject matter expertise

- Misinterpretation of figurative language, idioms, or cultural references

Semantic and syntactic errors are particularly common. Misinterpretation of logical relationships or cultural symbols in the source text often leads to inaccuracies. For example, translating “bank” as “банк” instead of “берег” highlights a failure to consider context.

Avoiding Translation Errors

Minimizing translation errors requires:

- Mastery of both source and target languages.

- Subject-matter expertise and familiarity with cultural nuances.

- Attention to authorial style and intent.

- Rigorous editing and comparison of the translation with the original text.

Conclusion

Translation errors are inevitable but manageable. Understanding their types and causes is critical to minimizing their impact. Translators must approach their work with skill, sensitivity, and dedication to preserving the integrity of the original text. By weaving logical, clear, and stylistically appropriate threads into the fabric of the translation, they can ensure its success.