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	<title>Электронный научно-практический журнал «Современные научные исследования и инновации» &#187; Данилина Марина Викторовна</title>
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		<title>Interaction of Russia and EU in 2013-2016</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/03/65346</link>
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		<pubDate>Sun, 27 Mar 2016 07:27:47 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[23.00.00 Political sciences]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ЕС]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[политическое взаимодействие]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Россия]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[санкции]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Украина]]></category>

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		<item>
		<title>Deficit of the democracy in the European Union</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/03/65347</link>
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		<pubDate>Sun, 27 Mar 2016 07:32:58 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[23.00.00 Political sciences]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[демократия]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[дефицит]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Европа]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Европейский суд]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ЕС]]></category>

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		<title>European Union: cooperation with the Council of Europe and Russia</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/04/65900</link>
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		<pubDate>Mon, 11 Apr 2016 08:14:15 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[23.00.00 Political sciences]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[взаимодействие]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ЕС]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Россия]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Совет Европы]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[соперничество]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[сотрудничество]]></category>

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		<title>Investments in Russia at current stage</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/04/65905</link>
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		<pubDate>Mon, 11 Apr 2016 08:27:42 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[08.00.00 Economics]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[2016]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[инвестиции]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[потенциальные инвесторы]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[риск]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Россия]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[экспорт]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[In recent years, the situation in the global economy has significantly deteriorated. In 2015 -2016 the international community has faced a number of negative trends: slowing down of the national economy, low oil prices, rapid decline in interest rates, sharp fluctuations in exchange rates. In addition, the situation is complicated by the sanctions regime against [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>In recent years, the situation in the global economy has significantly deteriorated. In 2015 -2016 the international community has faced a number of negative trends: slowing down of the national economy, low oil prices, rapid decline in interest rates, sharp fluctuations in exchange rates. In addition, the situation is complicated by the sanctions regime against Russia, which does not allow to develop the investment sphere, inhibits the development of the economy and society as a whole.</p>
<p>Let’s consider the dynamics of foreign investment in recent years. According to the data of the Federal State Statistics Service, in the period from 2009 to 2013 the volume of foreign investment income changed from about 10 billion US dollars to about 67 billion US dollars [1].</p>
<p>According to the analytical report “Russia in the international movement of capital in 2014 and early2015”, prepared by the Laboratory of the international movement of capital MGIMO (U) MID of Russia, in 2013 the net inflow of foreign investment in Russia was minimal positive in the first half of the year, but in the second half of the year gave way to large negative values​​. This was due to the fact that the reduced inflow overlapped by the increasing outflow of the previously invested ressources.<br />
In turn, this was due to the stagnation of the Russian economy with the prospect of developing into a recession primarily due to the fall in the world oil prices, but also because of Western economic sanctions. The fastest decline was in the sphere of the foreign portfolio investments [2]. In 2014 the situation has not improved. As the result of the imposition of sanctions in the spring of 2014 there was no receipt of additional grants and loans.<br />
What’s about the direct investments in 2014. their volume was US $ 33.502 billion, the volume of the direct investments abroad  was 56.393 billion US dollars, the volume of the direct investments inRussiawas US $ 22.891 billion.<br />
In 2012 the largest amount of foreign investment came from Switzerland, on the second and third place were the Netherlands and Cyprus. In 2013 Switzerland remained in the first place, Cyprus was the second, Great Britain ranked the third.<br />
In 2014 the introduction of the sanctions regime was reflected in the volume of foreign investments . As say the experts of the Laboratory of the international movement of MGIMO (University) MID Russia in the analytical report “Russia in the international movement of capital in 2014 and early2015”, the export of direct investments in 2014 amounted to only $ 56.4 billion against 86.5 billion in 2013, while imports of these investments declined even more radical &#8211; from $ 69.2 billion in 2013 to 21.0 billion in 2014 .</p>
<p>Globally, the volume of the direct investment flows in 2014, due to the unfavorable economic situation decreased , but only by 8% . As a result, Russia in 2014 left the top five on both as by the inflow of foreign direct investment ( in 2013 it had the 4th place after the United States, China and the British Virgin Islands ), so as by the exports ( 4th place after the United States , Japan and China ) [ 4 ] .</p>
<p><span>This situation extended to 2015 and 2016. Reducing of Russia&#8217;s investment attractiveness negatively affects the renewal of fixed assets, the competitiveness and development of enterprises and the economy as a whole. At the same time Russia is looking for ways to attract foreign investors in 2016. Despite the highest level of fluctuations in the Russian market in early 2016, the intensification of the export of capital by foreign investors, Russia will not give up hope of attracting investors, which can deal with high risk.</span></p>
<p><span>In the period from 21 to 27 January 2016 the total net cash outflows from funds investing in Russian stocks reached $113.4 million. A week earlier, the figure was $91.8 million according to the review of Emerging Portfolio Fund Research. At the end of 2016, according to Central Bank forecasts, the outflow of capital will be about 60 billion rubles ( US $ 800 million at the current rate). The net outflow of capital in 2015, according to preliminary estimates of the Bank of Russia amounted to $ 56.9 billion. This is almost three times less than in 2014, when the figure was $ 153 billion.</span><br />
According to the study EY «Investment attractiveness of European countries &#8211; 2015» (European Attractiveness Survey 2015) in 2015, the investment attractiveness of Russia continued to decline: only 11 % of investors indicated that they are ready to invest in the region, that represents an increase of 8 percentage points lower than in 2014.<br />
The difficult situation is in the oil industry. The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects that the decline in investments in the oil sector will continue in 2016. This was stated by Executive Director of the IEA Fatih Birol in the frame of the G20 events [5]. General Secretary of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Abdullah Al &#8211; Badri said that this year the decline in investments in the oil industry on a global scale was about $ 650 billion [6] .</p>
<p><span>Despite the negative trends, some investors are in no hurry to leave Russia. So, Elbrus Capital Investment Fund over the past year increased the volume of Russian assets in the portfolio from 8 to 60 %. When investors rush to sell assets, resulting from the volatility  &#8211; it represents &#8220;a good way to make money,&#8221; said CEO and founder of Khmelnitsky in conversation with Bloomberg. In 2015, the Fund was able to achieve a yield of 11 %.</span></p>
<p>Another example &#8211; one of the largest private companies in China Fosun.</p>
<p>In the fall of 2015 the company announced the launch of Russia&#8217;s investment platform Fosun Eurasia It sees the increased investment attractiveness of Russian assets associated with the devaluation of the ruble [7].</p>
<p>The examples of successful activity of investors indicate the presence of opportunities for investment inRussiain spite of the difficult economic and political situation.</p>
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		<title>Council of Europe: participation in youth policy</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/04/65902</link>
		<comments>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/04/65902#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 30 Apr 2016 20:05:59 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[23.00.00 Political sciences]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Европа]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[молодежная политика]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[молодежь]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Совет Европы]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[центр молодёжи]]></category>

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		<title>Souvereign Wealth Funds as an element of economic security in 2016</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/11/73642</link>
		<comments>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/11/73642#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 22 Nov 2016 15:12:26 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[08.00.00 Economics]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[oil]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Russia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[sovereign wealth funds]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[the economy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[the price of oil.]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[the Reserve Fund and the National Welfare Fund]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[нефть]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Резервный фонд]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Россия]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[суверенные фонды благосостояния]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Фонд национального благосостояния]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[цена на нефть]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[экономика]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[For a long time, sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) have been active actors of the world economy. According to the data of the Institute of sovereign wealth funds (SWFI) [1], in December 2010 the assets under management were $ 5.049 trillion, in June 2016 their value already reached $ 7.428 trillion ($ 6.510 trillion according to Preqin [2]), [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>For a long time, sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) have been active actors of the world economy. According to the data of the Institute of sovereign wealth funds (SWFI) [1], in December 2010 the assets under management were $ 5.049 trillion, in June 2016 their value already reached $ 7.428 trillion ($ 6.510 trillion according to Preqin [2]), in June 2016 – already $ 7.437 trillion [1].<br />
Overall, in March 2015 45 per cent of the SWFs noticed that their assets increased for the previous 12 months, 36 percent of SWFs observed a decrease of their assets and 19 per cent did not see any changes in assets. Increasing proportion of SWFs begins to actively invest in alternative assets, while investing in assets with fixed income and holdings in packets of state shares still make up the bulk of most portfolios.<br />
<span><span>About 62 percent of SWFs invest their assets in the real estate and the infrastructure, a number of SWFs prefer to invest in private equity, their share increased from 47 percent in 2015 to 55 percent this year, 35 percent of SWFs prefer investing in private debt [2].</span></span></p>
<p><span><span>Recent macro-economic conditions have set a specific set of problems. With the fall in commodity prices, which are the source of funding for many funds, a number of countries are faced with great difficulties. </span></span></p>
<p><span>The sharp decline in oil prices to around $ 40 per barrel has negatively affected the replenishment of the budget and sovereign wealth funds and their management in the oil-exporting countries, such as Norway, Russia and Saudi Arabia. Such a change in the world market and the reduction of budget revenues in their volume places the priority to ensure the economic security of states.</span><br />
The main factors of formation of the economic security should include, first, the specific socio-economic conditions of the subject of economic security; second, the process control ability, which impact on the state and development of the economic security, and third, the number and quality of the processes that determine the economic security [3].<br />
<span><span>There is also a number of external economic threats that include: currency outflow abroad; increase in the external debt; non-functional use of foreign currency; raw material orientation of exports; loss of competitiveness on the international market; the loss of foreign markets; the concentration of a controlling stake in the leading companies of the country for foreign investors.</span></span><br />
Economic security is considered a state in which a sovereign state can, without external interference, determine the ways and forms of its own economic development.<br />
The first sign of possible economic system to protect themselves from the danger of destruction by external and internal factors is the ability to maintain their own status and structure in accordance with certain social mission, which is characterized as the resistance of the system.<br />
<span>The second sign of the economic security, which is directly linked and is derived from the stability of the system is the ability to resist the development of obstacles. The concrete manifestation of the latest features of the system is manifested in the ability to achieve the goals of that management is defined as the effectiveness of the system. Thus, the most significant signs of the economic security of the system is its ability to resist the destruction of the organizational structure (resistance) and hinder the achievement of development goals (efficiency).</span><br />
For the purposes of ensuring the economic security of the country and implementation of the State&#8217;s expenditure obligations in the event of reduction of revenues of oil and gas revenues to the federal budget in Russia on the basis of the former Stabilization Fund of Russia were established two sovereign wealth fund &#8211; the Reserve Fund and National Welfare Fund [4], but this measure did not allow to solve all the existing problems.<br />
<span><span>The crisis in the economy is constantly reflected in the country&#8217;s economic performance. Thus, the federal budget deficit by the end of 2016 by plans will be 3.66% instead of 3%.</span></span><br />
The Ministry of Finance has prepared the following amendments: the average price of oil Urals &#8211; $ 40 per barrel, whereas the previously expected price of was $ 50 per barrel on average in the end of 2016. Budget for the year 2016 is counted on the basis of the average annual price of oil Urals on the level of $ 50 per barrel, the average annual rate of 63,3 rubles for $ 1, and the growth of the economy by 0.7%.<br />
<span>Assessment of inflation, which is also used to calculate the budget, has been reduced from 6.4% to 5.8%. As the result, the expected size of the budget deficit of 2016 increased from 2,360 trillion to 3.034 trillion rubles. The budget revenues have been reduced from 13.738 trillion to 13.368 trillion rubles, expenses increased &#8211; from 16.098 trillion to 16.402 trillion rubles.</span></p>
<p><span><span>In addition, the Ministry of Finance increased the expected size of the GDP in 2016 from 78.673 trillion to 82.815 trillion rubles. The evaluation of the Reserve Fund, forecasted in the budget plans, was increased from 5.507 trillion to 5.797 trillion rubles. The upper limit of the state internal debt increased from 8.818 trillion to 9.868 trillion rubles, of the external debt &#8211; reduced from 50.1 billion euros to 49.7 billion euros. The amount of domestic borrowings has increased from 300 billion rubles up to 500 billion rubles and the amount of the foreign borrowings &#8211; has not changed: $ 3 billion [5]. </span></span></p>
<p><span><span>National Welfare Fund</span></span><br />
As of November 1, 2016 the volume of the National Welfare Fund amounted to 4 541 930 000 000 rubles, which is equivalent to US $ 72.20 billion, including [4]:<br />
1) In separate accounts to record funds of the National Wealth Fund with the Bank of Russia:<br />
- US $ 19.56 billion;<br />
- 20.76 billion euros;<br />
<span>- 3.83 billion pounds sterling.</span><br />
2) deposits in Vnesheconombank &#8211; 195.03 billion rubles and $ 6.25 billion;<br />
<span>3) in debt securities of foreign states on the basis of a separate decision of the Russian Government, without requiring long-term credit rating &#8211; US 3.00 billion;</span><br />
4) in securities of Russian issuers related to the implementation of the self-supporting infrastructure projects, a list of which is approved by the Government of the Russian Federation -  112.63 billion rubles and $ 4.11 billion;<br />
5) in preferred shares of the credit institutions &#8211; 278 990 000 000 rubles.<br />
<span>6) on deposit in VTB Bank (PJSC) and the Bank of GPB (JSC) for the purpose of self-supporting of the financing of infrastructure projects, a list of which is approved by the Russian Government &#8211; 164.43 billion rubles.</span></p>
<p><span><span>The aggregate calculated income from placing the funds of the National Welfare Fund into the foreign currency accounts with the Bank of Russia, recalculated in USD, for the period from 15 January to 31 October 2016 amounted to $ 0.21 billion, which is equivalent to 12.90 billion rubles. Exchange differences from the revaluation of the Fund for the period from 1 January to 31 October 2016 amounted to a negative value (-) 678 490 000 000 rubles, including [4]:</span></span><br />
- On balances in the accounts in foreign currency with the Bank of Russia &#8211; (-) 545.10 billion rubles;<br />
- For funds placed on deposits in US dollars with Vnesheconombank &#8211; (-) 62.41 billion rubles;<br />
- For funds placed in debt securities of foreign states on the basis of a separate decision of the Russian Government, without requiring long-term credit rating to &#8211; (-) 29.94 billion rubles;<br />
- On foreign currency denominated securities of Russian issuers related to the implementation of self-supporting infrastructure projects, a list of which is approved by the Government of the Russian Federation &#8211; (-) 41.05 billion rubles.<br />
In October 2016 the federal budget received the following income from placing funds of the National Wealth Fund [4]:<br />
a) subordinated loan to VTB Bank (PJSC) &#8211; in the amount of 6.19 billion rubles, which is equivalent to 0.10 billion US dollars;<br />
b) deposits with Vnesheconombank &#8211; in the amount of 2.39 billion rubles, which is equivalent to 0.04 billion US dollars;<br />
<span>c) in securities of Russian issuers related to the implementation of self-supporting infrastructure projects, a list of which is approved by the Russian Government &#8211; in the amount of 0.22 billion rubles, which is equivalent to 0.004 billion US dollars.</span></p>
<p><span><span>The total income from the placement of the Fund&#8217;s assets in the eligible financial assets, with the exception of funds in the accounts with the Bank of Russia, from January to October 2016 amounted to 34.76 billion rubles, which is equivalent to US $ 0.53 billion [4].</span></span><br />
Reserve Fund<br />
As of November 1, 2016 the volume of the Reserve Fund was 1 991.61 billion. rubles, which is equivalent to US $ 31.66 billion. Balances in separate accounts to record funds of the Reserve Fund amounted to [4]:<br />
- US $ 14.50 billion;<br />
- 13.15 billion euros;<br />
- 2.30 billion pounds.<br />
<span><span>The aggregate calculated income from placing funds of the Reserve Fund in foreign currency accounts with the Bank of Russia, recalculated in USD, for the period from 15 January to 31 October 2016 amounted to $ 0.21 billion, which is equivalent to 13.26 bln. rubles. The exchange rate difference from recalculating balances of these accounts for the period from 1 January to 31 October 2016 amounted to a negative value (-) 478 960 000 000 rubles. [4].</span></span></p>
<p><span><span>Since February 2016 the volume of the National Welfare Fund started to decline from 5.34866 trillion rubles to 4.54193 trillion rubles in 2016. The crisis in the economy while reducing the size of the Russian sovereign wealth funds generates negative outlook of development. According to Reuters, with reference to the Ministry of Finance proposal to the budget 2017-2019, “the reserve funds airbags” that Russia accumulated in the fat years of high oil prices, will soon be exhausted.</span></span><br />
According to the agency, the next year will reset the Reserve fund, its balance will be equal to 0, and in order to cover budget deficit from the National Welfare Fund, the Ministry of Finance plans to take 783 billion rubles in 2017, 883 billion rubles in 2018 and 87 billion rubles in 2019 Thus, in three years it will be reduced to 2.97 bln. rubles from the current 4 675 360 000 000 rubles.<br />
Net domestic borrowing in accordance with the forecasts will grow up to 1.29 trillion rubles in 2017 to 300 billion rubles in 2016. In 2018-2019. they will increase to 1.47 and 1.44 trillion rubles respectively. Earlier, Finance Minister Anton Siluanov did not exclude that the volume of net borrowing can be increased to $ 1 trillion rubles in 2017 and that financing of the deficit in the next year will be necessary from the NWF. &#8220;If the Reserve fund runs out of funds, the National Welfare Fund is the same reserve fund by its character&#8221;, &#8211; said the Minister.<br />
<span><span>The budget deficit in 2016 of 3% of GDP  will be financed mainly by means of the reserve fund. According to the law of the budget, the Ministry of Finance can spend on deficit financing 2.1 trillion rubles. The reserve fund could shrink to 900 billion rubles by year&#8217;s end, as warned earlier the Deputy Finance Minister Alexei Lavrov. </span></span></p>
<p><span><span>This is due to the increase in the deficit for 520 billion rubles due to the general decline in revenues. The budget deficit for the first six months amounted to 4.3% of GDP. In the first half of 2015 revenues were reduced by 12% &#8211; the budget has already lost more than 700 billion rubles of income, said Deputy Finance Minister Maxim Oreshkin: &#8220;With regard to graphics, embedded in the law on the budget, we go now lower by 1.3 trillion rubles even in the case of preservation in oil prices at the current level, which is not guaranteed&#8221; [6].</span></span></p>
<p><span><span>In 2017 the Ministry of Finance also suggests 3% of GDP budget deficit, which is planned to decrease by 1 percentage point per year. Total deficit in the 2017-2019 may reach 5.6 trillion rubles based on the current Ministry of Economic Development’s forecast made by the nominal GDP (which may be reduced due to lower forecast for inflation). </span></span><br />
&#8220;To finance such a large the budget deficit (though it counts as 3% in percents), taking into account the reduction of reserves at the expense of domestic borrowings &#8211; it is a big risk,&#8221; &#8211; said Siluanov earlier [6].<br />
<span>NWF was originally created to support the pension system. But in the crisis of 2008-2009 its funds were used to support the banks, and now are sent for infrastructure projects as well.</span></p>
<p><span>NWF’ status is described in very general terms, amendments to the law are not required in order to direct its resources to the financing of the budget deficit, said earlier the head of the Economic Expert Group Evsei Gurvich. A year ago a working group of the assessment of the fiscal risks of the public council under the Ministry of Finance proposed to transfer to the Reserve fund the liquid part of the National Welfare Fund [6].</span><br />
One of the measures offered by the Ministry of Finance for the next budget cycle, and with which the government has already agreed to the Budget Commission &#8211; to freeze the budget expenditures in nominal terms at the level of 15.78 trillion rubles per year for every 3-years period of time [6].<br />
According to the chief economist at ING in Russia and CIS Dmitry Polevoy, in this situation there are only two scenarios. &#8220;The first option – to borrow resources on the both foreign and domestic markets.<br />
<span><span>This scenario can be allowed, but it is coupled with a number of risks, given into consideration the lack of long-term sources of funding in the context of the freezing of pension savings, in the absence of completion of the pension reform, and so on &#8220;- quoted expert of BFM. He also reminded that there are sanctions that bring limits in terms of scope, the possibility of raising funds through the external market [7].</span></span></p>
<p><span><span>&#8220;The second way &#8211; reducing the budget deficit, there has not been invented anything else as either cut spending or increase revenues. We understand that to cut costs in nominal terms is already difficult enough, so it was decided to fix the volume of the expenditures of the federal budget at the level of the year 2016, and in this regard the latest news about the recent proposals of the Ministry of Finance on the tax increase have quite clear outlines. This may well be a realistic scenario on the horizon after 2018&#8243;, &#8211; said the analyst. [7].</span></span><br />
According to the study &#8220;Development Centre&#8221; of the High School of Economics (HSE) called &#8220;Comments of the state and business&#8221;, published on August, the crisis in the Russian economy in the first half of the year has increased, economic activity resumed its decline, dropping to the mid-year, lower than the minimum values since the beginning of the current crisis [7].<br />
In this case the process of the compression of the economy was &#8220;broad front&#8221;, affecting virtually all sectors, and now it is early to speak of any recovery in economic activity in Russia. In these circumstances, the loss of oil revenue threatens the exhaustion of the Reserve Fund before the end of the year, warn analysts of the HSE [7].<br />
<span><span> &#8221;It was completed only the first, the most acute phase of the economy to adapt to the &#8220;new normal reality&#8221;, &#8211; the report says. &#8211; The economy once again began to fall, hit the bottom, with GDP that characterizes the issue of the economy as a whole, which struck the bottom in the first quarter of 2016, while in the second quarter, according to our estimates, it was at 1.4% and below the bottom and for 5, 5% lower than the average level of 2014 [7].</span></span><br />
In this regard, experts say, it remains a major threat to the reduction of the budget revenues due to falling oil prices. Already in the first half of 2016 the government had to use 780 billion rubles to cover the federal budget from the Reserve Fund deficit. By the end of the year according to the HSE assessment the Reserve fund can be fully exhausted [7].<br />
In August of 2016 the Ministry of Finance for the third time since the beginning of the year spent the resources of the Reserve Fund to finance the budget deficit. As the result, less than 7 trillion rubles were left in the sovereign wealth funds of Russia. Russia has lost nearly a fifth of the Reserve Fund &#8211; it decreased by 18.4% up to 2.09 trillion rubles.</p>
<p>This is the largest reduction of the Reserve Fund in percentage of the year and a half, it follows from the statistical department data, including 390 billion rubles that have been spent in the past month to finance the federal budget deficit, the report said. The Finance Ministry has mobilized reserve fund to cover the budget deficit for the third time since the beginning of the year.</p>
<p>&#8220;Part of the foreign exchange reserves of the Reserve fund from the accounts of the Bank of Russia in the amount of $ 2.92 billion, € 2.46 billion and £ 0.31 billion was sold for 390 billion rubles, and the funds received were credited to a single account of the federal budget&#8221;, &#8211; was stated in the Ministry of Finance’s report. Another 80 billion rubles the Reserve fund  lost due to the negative revaluation of foreign currency accounts. The ruble has strengthened by 1.1% in August (suddenly, as the ruble declined in every August since 2007), follows from the data of Bloomberg [8].<br />
<span><span>Earlier, in 2016, the Ministry of Finance has twice implemented the reserves of the Reserve Fund to cover the federal budget deficit: in April and May 2016 the Ministry of Finance spent from the fund  390 billion rubles for these purposes. In total for eight months in 2016 to finance the budget deficit were allocated 1.17 trillion rubles. On the difference in current exchange rates (due to the strengthening of the ruble) since the beginning of 2016 the Reserve Fund lost 380.5 billion rubles, follows from the report of theMinistry of Finance [8].</span></span><br />
The National Welfare Fund (NWF)’s reserves were not spent in August, but in this month the fund was reduced to 123 billion rubles (-2.5%) and amounted 4.72 trillion. rub. Since the beginning of the year the income from placing funds of the National Welfare Fund in foreign currency amounted to 15.41 billion rubles, and losses from the revaluation of the exchange rate reached 501.25 billion rubles.<br />
Thus, by the beginning of September, less than 7 trillion rubles were left in two Russian sovereign wealth funds. The volume of the Reserve Fund felt to the lowest level since early 2013 [8]. Beginning from February 2015 the amount of the Reserve Fund has fallen from 5 864.90 billion rubles (7.3% of GDP) to 1 991.61 billion rubles (2.5% of GDP) as of 1 November 2016.<br />
Totally in 2016 the Ministry of Finance planned to spend 2.1 trillion rubles from the Reserve fund. As informed the Finance Minister Anton Siluanov, it won’t be easy to keep the Reserve Fund spendings at this level in 2016 because the sum was formed on the basis of the oil price of $ 50 per barrel.<br />
Deputy Finance Minister Maxim Oreshkin expressed his opinion in August, that the expenditure of the Reserve Fund this year may come close to the mark of 3 trillion. rubles in the case of the changes of the terms of the privatization of &#8220;Rosneft&#8221;[8].<br />
The Bank of Russia believes that financing the budget deficit for the entire 2016 will need to use 2.4 trillion. rubles from the Reserve Fund, of which 1.2 trillion. Rubles are already used. Expenditure of the Reserve Fund provides inflow of budget funds in the banking sector and thus contributes to the transition of the system to a structural surplus of liquidity deficit after five years.<br />
<span>Other sources of financing of the budget deficit, such as borrowing and privatization of state-owned companies, do not affect liquidity, but the Ministry of Finance has already exceeded the limit of the net domestic borrowing for this year (300 billion. rubles), and the privatization is delayed all the time.</span><br />
Therefore, the Ministry of Finance’s operations increase the likelihood of the formation of &#8220;substantial fiscal overhang&#8221; at the end of 2016, was said in an August in the review of the Central Bank &#8220;What do the trends&#8221;.<br />
<span>At the end of 2016 Reserve Fund will be 980 billion. roubles, which will be exhausted in 2017, reported Reuters in July with the reference to the materials of the draft budget for the years 2017-2019.</span><br />
In 2017, the government can use the resources of the National Welfare Fund (NWF) for budgeting purposes, said Siluanov in an interview with RBC in June. Now the NWF is not spent for the financing of the budget deficit, and about a third of its volume is placed with Vnesheconombank and in infrastructure projects [8].<br />
<span><span>According to our opinion, the possibility of exhaustion of the Reserve Fund exists, therefore it is necessary to improve the management and investment of funds’ mechanism of Russian sovereign wealth funds, and develop other ways to cover the budget deficit.</span></span></p>
<p><strong>References</strong></p>
<ol>
<li>Institute of sovereign wealth funds (SWFI), treatment Date:. 07.11.2016, http://www.swfinstitute.org/sovereign-wealth-fund-rankings/</li>
<li>Global sovereign wealth fund assets rise to $ 6.51 trillion, Tue Apr 19, 2016 reference date:. 07.11.2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/global-swf-assets-idUSL5N17M4CP</li>
<li>Bulgakov, GV Terms of ensuring the economic security of Russia, Treatment Date:. 07.11.2016, http://www.actualresearch.ru/nn/2009_3/Article/economics/bulgakov.doc</li>
<li>The Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, official site, treatment Date: 07.11.2016, <a href="http://minfin.ru/ru/perfomance/reservefund/mission/#ixzz4PFAsTogx">http://minfin.ru/ru/perfomance/reservefund/mission/#ixzz4PFAsTogx</a>.</li>
<li>The Ministry of Finance has increased the budget deficit of 2016 from 3% to 3.7%, 10/3/2016, reference date:. 07.11.2016, http://www.vestifinance.ru/articles/75737</li>
<li>Alexander Prokopenko reserve fund will end in 2017. &#8211; Reuters July 5, 2016, Vedomosti treatment Date: 07.11.2016, https://www.vedomosti.ru/economics/articles/2016/07/05/648034-rezervnii-fond. -reuters</li>
<li>The budget deficit of the Russian Federation &#8220;eat&#8221; 18% of the reserve fund in the past month the National Welfare Fund decreased by 2.5%, 09/06/16, reference date:. 07.11.2016, https://newdaynews.ru/finance/578371.html</li>
<li>Anna Mogilev, Ivan Tkachev Finance Ministry in August lost 18% of the Reserve Fund 6 September 2016, reference date:. 07.11.2016, http://www.rbc.ru/economics/06/09/2016</li>
</ol>
]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Analysis of the economy of Russia in 2016</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/12/76165</link>
		<comments>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/12/76165#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 29 Dec 2016 12:14:45 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[08.00.00 Economics]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[development]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[economy]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[GDP]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[inflation]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[investments]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Russia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ВВП]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[инвестиции]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[инфляция]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[развитие.]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Россия]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[экономика]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[In 2016 the economy of Russia faced a number of problems which influenced the dynamics of its economic indicators. According to the statistical data, the volume of GDP in the third quarter 2016 amounted 15754.5 bln. roubles, the volume of the investments in the main capital in January-September 2016 amounted 9116.1 bln. roubles, consumer price [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>In 2016 the economy of Russia faced a number of problems which influenced the dynamics of its economic indicators. According to the statistical data, the volume of GDP in the third quarter 2016 amounted 15754.5 bln. roubles, the volume of the investments in the main capital in January-September 2016 amounted 9116.1 bln. roubles, consumer price index was 100,4%, production price index was 100,7%, unemployement level was 5,4%, total number of unemployed was 4,1 bln. people (table 1).</p>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="center">Table 1. Main economic indicators of Russia in 2015-2016</p>
<table width="614" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Coefficient</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">Data</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">Amount</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">Measure</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">Difference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">Valid on</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">GDP</p>
</td>
<td colspan="5" width="478"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">GDP</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">31.12.15</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">60682.1</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">bln. roubles</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">-2349</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">25.01.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">GDP</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">III quarter 2016</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">15754.5</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">bln. roubles</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">1232.4</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">13.12.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Investments in the main capital</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">December 2015</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">2460.3</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">bln. roubles</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">1013.5</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">25.01.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Investments in the main capital</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">January-September 2016</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">9116.1</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">bln. roubles</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">-</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">19.12.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Inflation</p>
</td>
<td colspan="5" width="478"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Consumer price index</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">Ноябрь 2016</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">100.4</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">%</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">0</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">06.12.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Production price index</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">Ноябрь 2016</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">100.7</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">%</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">-</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">15.12.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Labour market indicators</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80"></td>
<td valign="top" width="76"></td>
<td valign="top" width="95"></td>
<td valign="top" width="146"></td>
<td valign="top" width="82"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136"></td>
<td colspan="5" width="478"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Total number of unemployed</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">Ноябрь 2016</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">4.1</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">bln. people</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">0.01</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">19.12.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="136">
<p align="center">Unemployment level</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="80">
<p align="center">Ноябрь 2016</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="76">
<p align="center">5.4</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="95">
<p align="center">%</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center">-</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="82">
<p align="center">19.12.16</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="center">Source: Rosbusinesscounsulting, http://quote.rbc.ru/macro/country/1.shtml</p>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="center">Table 2 Dynamics of the production in Russia, %</p>
<table width="444" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">Year</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">Percent</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2005</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">4.0</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2006</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">4.8</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2007</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">7.4</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2008</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">3.5</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2009</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">-13.1</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2010</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">8.3</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2011</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">5.0</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2012</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">2.6</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2013</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">0.1</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2014</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">0.6</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="51%">
<p align="center">2015</p>
</td>
<td width="49%">
<p align="center">-3.5</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Source: <a href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html" target="_blank">CIA World Factbook</a></p>
<p>The dynamics of the production in Russia from 2010 had a negative trend and diminished from 8,3 percent till -3,5 percent. The dynamics of GDP had a negative trend as well.</p>
<p>Such trends need the application of the anticrisis methods for the economy of Russia. According to the Forecast of socio &#8211; economic development of the Russian Federation for 2016 and the planning period of 2017 and 2018, the main priorities of the development of the economy of Russia are the following: increasing the investment attractiveness of the Russian Federation, improving the business climate and creating favorable business environment; balancing the federal budget; preservation of the tax conditions of stability and optimization of tariff regulation; improving the quality of life and investment in human capital; balanced regional development; improving the quality of the functioning of the state institutions authorities; development of the information technology and support of the high-tech sectors of the economy [2].<br />
In the part of the increasing of the investment attractiveness of the Russian Federation, one of the main goals is the improvement of the business climate and creating the favorable business environment in 2016 &#8211; 2018. It is important to focus on the implementation of the new business community initiatives, enforcement practices and interaction with the business as a result of the implementation of the &#8220;road cards&#8221; [2].<br />
The key areas of public health care policy in the period 2016-2018 are: ensuring the adoption of additional measures to improve health; the cost-effectiveness of the health system on the basis of scientific based analysis; development of a cost accounting methodology in health organizations for the medical assistance and payment the cost of the program on the base of the state guarantees for the free medical assistance to the citizens; introduction to the system of clinical guidelines (treatment protocols); acceptance of the &#8220;road map&#8221; of nuclear medicine centers and<br />
Diagnostics [2].<br />
In the implementation of fiscal policy, the focus will be placed on anti-crisis measures. Russian Government measures in the tax area are as follows: exemptions from corporate income tax for new productions; the increase in initial cost of depreciable property for tax purposes; measures to tax incentives for the development of small businesses through special tax regimes; the patent for the self-employed individuals who have not hired workers; increased revenue threshold for the purposes of payment of advanced payments of the corporate income tax; simplifying calculation and decision to deduct the VAT paid as part of advance payment [2].</p>
<p>For 2017 there are many positive forecasts. One of them is the forecast of the economis of Saxo Bank S. Yakobsen: &#8220;The sanctions are likely to be removed, not all of them, but at least part of them, already in 2017, that will have a positive impact on the economy. The lifting of sanctions will accelerate Russia&#8217;s GDP growth by 1 percentage point per year, which will allow him to go to zero”. In this he agrees with those same Kudrin [3].</p>
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		<title>La transparence dans les sociétés modernes</title>
		<link>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/12/76461</link>
		<comments>https://web.snauka.ru/en/issues/2016/12/76461#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:17:07 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Данилина Марина Викторовна</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[08.00.00 Economics]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[démocratisation]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Internet]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[modernisation]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[société]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[transparence]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[демократизация]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[интернет]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[модернизация]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[общество]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[прозрачность]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Sous le quinquennat de F. Hollande une loi pour la transparence de la vie publique a été promulguée. Celle-ci prévoyait notamment que le patrimoine des élus soit rendu public. Cette loi a provoqué contestations et questionnements au sein de la classe politique autant qu&#8217;au sein de la population. Il fut alors question de connaître l&#8217;intérêt [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Sous le quinquennat de F. Hollande une loi pour la transparence de la vie publique a été promulguée. Celle-ci prévoyait notamment que le patrimoine des élus soit rendu public. Cette loi a provoqué contestations et questionnements au sein de la classe politique autant qu&#8217;au sein de la population. Il fut alors question de connaître l&#8217;intérêt d&#8217;une telle transparence mais aussi de reconnaître les méfaits qui pouvaient en émaner.</p>
<p>La transparence se définit en physique comme la capacité d&#8217;un objet à se laisser traverser par la lumière. Il est intéressant de noter qu&#8217;aucun objet n&#8217;est totalement transparent. En sciences sociales la transparence se définit comme la diffusion d&#8217;informations relatives aux différents domaines de la politique et de la société ainsi qu&#8217;au rapport entre gouvernants et gouvernés. Au XXIè siècle, siècle consacré comme étant celui de la technologie et d&#8217;internet, la question de la transparence ne se limite pas seulement à l&#8217;organisation collective de la vie en société mais peut aussi s&#8217;étendre à l&#8217;individu. En effet si un citoyen peut-être en droit de demander des comptes aux gouvernants sur les politiques choisies, l&#8217;inverse est aussi envisageable.</p>
<p>La société moderne, évoque une certaine singularité et une unicité dans la typologie des systèmes de gouvernement et des sociétés qui leurs sont rattachées. Pourtant, même en son sein ceux-ci sont multiples. La société suédoise diffère en effet grandement de la société italienne pourtant toutes deux sont qualifiées de modernes. La société moderne s&#8217;oppose alors à la société traditionnelle et pré-industrielle, elle se concrétise après cette dernière ; elle a comme pendant la démocratie -ou du moins son extension- , l&#8217;Etat de droit, la rationalisation du pouvoir et partiellement la mondialisation et l&#8217;une de ses conséquences principales : l&#8217;interdépendance croissante des Etats. On peut aussi délimiter temporellement ce qu&#8217;on entend par société moderne à savoir une temporalité qui se limite à un passé proche, l&#8217;avènement du néo-libéralisme à la fin des années 1970, un présent continu et un futur immédiat.</p>
<p>La transparence semble lorsqu&#8217;on scrute les évolutions idéologiques, politiques et sociétales, aller de pair avec la modernisation des sociétés. Pourtant, comme évoqué précédemment, elle ne fait pas de manière évidente l&#8217;objet d&#8217;un consensus.</p>
<p>Ainsi il sera pertinent de voir que si la transparence apparaît comme un impératif dans la société moderne, sa concrétisation peine à s&#8217;imposer et ce autant dans sa réalisation concrète et technique que dans un contexte plus théorique et idéel.</p>
<p>De façon a explicité notre propos introductif nous verrons d&#8217;abord que la transparence est impérative dans la société contemporaine. Cependant celle-ci fait face à des réticences de la part de la machine étatique et de ceux-qui en sont les représentants.</p>
<p>Le besoin de transparence n&#8217;est pas un phénomène  endogène. C&#8217;est un phénomène immanent à la démocratie. Il a cependant été renforcé par des contingences politiques, sociales et économiques.</p>
<p>La démocratie est rattachée au libéralisme. Seulement le libéralisme recouvre plusieurs domaines tels que la politique ou l&#8217;économie. C&#8217;est d&#8217;une certaine conception du libéralisme que la transparence émane en tant que revendication.</p>
<p>Le souci de transparence se manifeste dès l&#8217;Antiquité dans la cité d&#8217;Athènes. En effet les magistrats à leur sortie de fonction avaient l&#8217;obligation de faire approuver leurs comptes. Mais cette valeur disparaît pour ne réapparaître partiellement qu&#8217;à l&#8217;aube du XXè siècle.</p>
<p>Le libéralisme politique s&#8217;impose définitivement durant le XVIIIè siècle. Les Etats sont de plus en plus nombreux à adopter des constitutions devenant ainsi des Etats de droit. Le printemps des peuples en 1848 constitue un tournant en Europe où des situations insurrectionnelles pour plus de libéralisme apparaissent. Depuis les populations ont acquis de nombreux droits fondamentaux assurés par l&#8217;Etat. Ces droits obtenus les peuples ont eu alors la possibilité d&#8217;en demander plus. Plus tard, à la fin des années 1960 les médias de masse se multiplient et permettent l&#8217;accès à la population à plus d&#8217;information autant sur le plan qualitatif que quantitatif.</p>
<p>Le néolibéralisme apparaît à la fin des années 1970 avec l&#8217;élection de M. Tchatcher au Royaume-Uni suivie de celle de R. Reagan aux Etats-Unis. Ce mouvement prône &#8221;moins d&#8217;Etat&#8221;. Conjugué à l&#8217;extension des mass medias il braque les projecteurs sur l&#8217;Etat. La remise en cause de l&#8217;action étatique sur certains plans a certainement participé à l&#8217;apparition de premières demandes importantes de transparence vis-à-vis des gouvernants, leur légitimité étant remise en question et ne pouvant plus s&#8217;affranchir autant qu&#8217;avant du consentement des gouvernés. De plus le néolibéralisme  s&#8217;inscrit dans la lignée des sciences économiques avec l&#8217;affirmation d&#8217;un marché auto-régulateur où l&#8217;information serait parfaite. Bien qu&#8217;elle ne le soit pas, ce paradigme a sans doute poussé la société civile a revendiquer le droit à l&#8217;information.</p>
<p>Les médias concourent eux aussi à la diffusion de l&#8217;information, ceux-ci se sont vus accordés depuis  une soixantaine d&#8217;année une marge de manœuvre plus importante notamment avec leur privatisation. Cela leur a permis d&#8217;orienter et d&#8217;intéresser l&#8217;opinion aux thématiques d&#8217;information. La question n&#8217;est au final pas tant d&#8217;avoir l&#8217;information mais de pouvoir l&#8217;avoir si l&#8217;envie s&#8217;en déclare ; personne n&#8217;est obligé de s&#8217;intéresser à l&#8217;action étatique mais ceux qui s&#8217;y intéressent ont le droit de savoir. C&#8217;est un principe qui est dans le prolongement de la démocratie et permet de guider le citoyen dans l&#8217;un des seuls moments où la démocratie se joue, à savoir le vote.</p>
<p>Le principe de transparence est primordial quant à l&#8217;adhésion des citoyens aux politiques menés et à la légitimité d&#8217;un gouvernement. Joseph Stiglitz dans &#8221;Globalization and its discontents&#8221; (2002) analyse sur le plan mondial le rôle des institutions économiques internationales. Il montre que ces institutions (particulièrement le FMI) prennent des décisions à huis clos puis les imposent par la force coercitive politique et financière dont elles disposent. Un ressentiment à l&#8217;égard de ces institutions est né dans la plupart des pays qui ont suivi des plans du FMI mettant l&#8217;existence de ce dernier en péril.</p>
<p>Si la transparence &#8211; re- naît avec le libéralisme, ce sont d&#8217;autres facteurs qui ont permis son imposition sur le devant de la scène politique.</p>
<p>L&#8217;érection de la transparence comme obligation morale ne va pas de soi. La transparence a bénéficié du terreau fertile de la crise pour questionner les prénotions politiques. La transparence a aussi bénéficié du formidable outil de communication et de diffusion de l&#8217;information apparu à la fin du XXè siècle : internet.</p>
<p>Les nombreuses crises économiques qui se sont succédé depuis l&#8217;imposition du libéralisme (Mexique 1994, Asie orientale 1997, Russie 1998, Argentine 2000, USA 2007, Europe 2008) ont ébranlé l&#8217;idée de la perfection des marchés. Du point des vue des citoyens et de la société civile ces crises économiques ont conduites à une remise en question de l&#8217;omniscience des Etats et de leur compétence. S&#8217;en est suivi une crise de confiance avec le sentiment d&#8217;être mal représenté puis celui plus récent d&#8217;être mal gouverné. Les gouvernés ont pris conscience de la nécessité de surveiller les institutions politiques et financières par des instances plus neutres. Les seuls à même de mettre en place ces institutions étaient jusqu&#8217;alors les Etats. L&#8217;échec probant des Etats et des marchés à s&#8217;auto-surveiller et à s&#8217;auto-réguler à amener les gouvernés et la société face à une aporie : quis custodiet ipsos custodes ? L&#8217;auto-gouvernement ne pouvant être mis en place, la volonté de diriger, de surveiller les gouvernements à conduit à une velléité de surveillance de ceux-ci.</p>
<p>L&#8217;autre élément qui est apparu lors de ces crises c&#8217;est l&#8217;interdépendance croissante des Etats et le transnationalisme des crises. Concomitamment s&#8217;est développé un autre phénomène de communication transnational : internet. Internet est apparu à la fin des années 1990 et s&#8217;est imposé comme le nouvel outil de communication, de transmission et de diffusion de l&#8217;information. Il a toujours été promu comme un endroit libre de l&#8217;influence des Etats même si (nous le verrons ultérieurement) cette pensée ne survit pas à la réalité des pratiques. Cet outil a facilité les mobilisations mondiales autour de certaines thématiques. L&#8217;instantanéité de l&#8217;information a aussi permis la réactivité des opposants à une cause ce qui permet souvent de susciter un engouement plus prompt et donc plus vigoureux.</p>
<p>Un autre acte majeur qui a été permis par l&#8217;internet et fondateur du très récent goût pour la transparence est la révélation de &#8221;secrets&#8221; par les lanceurs d&#8217;alerte. Les lanceurs d&#8217;alerte ont insufflé une nouvelle dynamique aux mouvements en faveur de plus de transparence en rappelant que les Etats agissaient souvent en secret. Or dans un monde plus connecté où tout les gens sont plus interconnectés et interdépendants ce principe selon lequel les relations internationales ne peuvent se faire correctement que dans le secret tend à perdre de sa superbe. Le scandale des écoutes de la NSA révélé par Edward Snowden ont ébranlé la planète et ont révélé le double jeu qu&#8217;ont joué les Etats. Il est cependant amusant de noter que E. Snowden a trouvé refuge en Russie, pays qui n&#8217;est pas le plus démocratique au monde. Un autre élément intéressant réside dans le fait que les citoyens américains ont pu approuvé son action en tant que &#8221;whistle blower&#8221; autant que la désapprouver sous prétexte qu&#8217;il serait un dissident et un traître. De quelque façon qu&#8217;on puisse qualifier son acte il n&#8217;a rien fait d&#8217;autre que de diffuser un savoir.</p>
<p>Nous avons vu que la transparence comme revendication existe depuis longtemps même si elle a mis un certain temps à s&#8217;imposer sur le devant de la scène. Cette valeur jouit cependant maintenant d&#8217;une certaine vigueur. Mais la mise en place de la transparence se heurte à un inconvénient majeur. En effet, pour se développer et s&#8217;institutionnaliser elle doit bénéficier d&#8217;un cadre légal et institutionnel idoine dont les plus à même de le mettre en place ne sont pas toujours les plus velléitaires. La machine étatique l&#8217;en entrave.</p>
<p>On peut voir une ébauche d&#8217;opposition de la société contre l&#8217;Etat. De nombreux facteurs explicatifs peuvent-être avancés, parmi ceux-ci on s&#8217;intéressera ici à la volonté étatique de monopoliser le savoir. Nous étudierons ensuite l&#8217;octroi par le peuple de la légitimité à gouverner à une minorité avec les tenants et les aboutissant que cela implique sur le plan de la transparence et du gouvernement des hommes.</p>
<p>L&#8217;Etat s&#8217;est toujours intéressé à sa population. Les partisans d&#8217;une vision contractualiste de la constitution des sociétés affirmeraient que cela se réside dans la nature philanthrope de l&#8217;Etat. Cependant on pourrait arguer que c&#8217;est dans le souci d&#8217;asseoir et de développer sa puissance que naît cet intérêt. Le savoir constitue un instrument considérable de puissance.</p>
<p>Les premiers recensements effectués l&#8217;ont été sous l&#8217;impulsion de l&#8217;Etat. Le but était de savoir quelle était la puissance démographique de l&#8217;Etat et de connaître qui devait payer l&#8217;impôt.</p>
<p>M. Foucault dans &#8221;Surveiller et punir&#8221; (1975) démontre que tout savoir est un pouvoir. Le pouvoir coercitif repose sur la connaissance. De plus il pense le pouvoir non pas seulement comme interactionnel mais comme réticulaire et doté du don d&#8217;ubiquité. Cela explique que la transparence puisse apparaître comme un danger pour les gouvernants puisqu&#8217;elle dote les citoyens d&#8217;un savoir -et donc d&#8217;un pouvoir- sur les gouvernants.</p>
<p>La monopolisation du savoir par les Etats s&#8217;explique aussi sur le plan des relations internationales et de la géopolitique. L&#8217;action et la discussion diplomatique seraient ,selon les dires des principaux intéressés, impossible sans le sceau du secret. On a par exemple en ce moment un accord TAFTA (trans-atlantic free trade agreement) qui est en cours de négociation. Le contenu de ce traité est gardé secret sous prétexte de le préserver. Or des quelques points qui ont été divulgués beaucoup de gens se sont manifestés comme défavorable à ce traité. C&#8217;est sur ce point que le questionnement à propos de qui sont les principaux intéressés peut prêter à confusion. Les principaux interessés lors de la négociation d&#8217;un traité sont les Etats par le truchement de diplomates et négociateurs. Or si le but des Etats est de favoriser leurs populations, ceci devrait directement s&#8217;en référer au peuple. Si le but des Etats est de maintenir leur prédominance alors ceux-ci ne doivent rendre de comptes qu&#8217;à eux-mêmes.</p>
<p>On invoque souvent la raison d&#8217;Etat comme motif de censure de l&#8217;information. Mais le phénomène de globalisation en même temps qu&#8217;il a raccourci les distances et le temps à rapprocher les hommes sur bien des points. De nos jours un homme au bout du monde peut nous être sous bien des aspects plus familier que notre voisin(e) d&#8217;en dessous. Sur bien des points, si des principes de transparence avait présidé au gouvernement des hommes l&#8217;histoire récente en serait changé ; on peut citer la guerre en Irak comme exemple de projet de guerre contre de chimériques armes de destruction massive. Les Etats ont trop souvent des raisons que la raison ignore, malheureusement celles-ci ne sont  que rarement le produit de la sentimentalité. La &#8221;diplomatie d&#8217;alcôve&#8221; n&#8217;a plus lieu d&#8217;être à mesure que les peuples s&#8217;éduquent et s&#8217;élèvent intellectuellement. On peut reconnaître qu&#8217;il soit difficile d&#8217;accorder à la totalité d&#8217;une population la possibilité de prendre des décisions d&#8217;envergures internationales, en revanche il est difficile de défendre l&#8217;idée selon laquelle les décisionnaires étatiques n&#8217;ont de comptes à rendre à personne.</p>
<p>La monopolisation ou l&#8217;oligopolisation du savoir comme prérogative étatique  est un élément constitutif majeur de la remise en cause d&#8217;une transparence partielle, substantielle ou totale. Mais pour bénéficier d&#8217;une telle prégnance il a fallu l&#8217;accord implicite de la population. Cet accord se concrétise avec l&#8217;octroi de la légitimité et de la souveraineté par les gouvernés (majoritaires) aux gouvernants (minoritaires).</p>
<p>Si certains ont dès l&#8217;Antiquité évoqués la démocratie comme tyrannie de la majorité sur la minorité, toujours est-il qu&#8217;une minorité est effectivement au pouvoir exerçant une forme de gouvernement non-démocratique sinon tyrannique. D&#8217;aucuns affirment alors que pour que l&#8217;exercice du pouvoir se fasse au mieux, celui-ci doit se faire dans les arcanes gouvernementale, à l&#8217;abri du jugement des électeurs.</p>
<p>La démocratie n&#8217;a rien de démocratique sinon périodiquement lorsque les citoyens sont appelés aux urnes. Une fois les résultat de l&#8217;élection donné le peuple n&#8217;a que rarement et dans d&#8217;extrêmes situations la possibilité de choisir une autre orientation. A bien des égards il ne choisit pas souvent une mauvaise orientation, les promesses ne sont juste pas respectées face à &#8221;la réalité des faits&#8221;. Or cette réalité des faits, nous ne la connaîtrons in fine jamais. Tout est fait pour qu&#8217;on se garde de savoir et d&#8217;intervenir, c&#8217;est ainsi qu&#8217;on scientifise la plupart des domaines ayant traits au gouvernement des hommes.</p>
<p>C&#8217;est le citoyen qui en acceptant les lois, règles, décrets, traités et autres normes, légitime ipso facto le mal-gouvernement. Les causes de toutes tyrannies, aussi policées soient elles, viennent du consentement des hommes. E. de la Boëtie écrit à ce propos dans son &#8221;Discours sur la servitude volontaire&#8221;  &#8221;Soyez résolus de ne plus servir, et vous serez libres&#8221;.</p>
<p>La démocratie ne peut se défaire du jugement des électeurs car c&#8217;est son principe directeur. Dévoyée de son sens la démocratie appelle ce jugement de façon périodique or c&#8217;est de sa continuité que résulte sa force.</p>
<p>De façon à modérer la véhémence des propos précédemment tenus il serait honnête de reconnaître que l&#8217;agitation des masses n&#8217;est pas toujours propice au gouvernement des hommes. Jusque récemment en France les projets de lois étaient étudiés en commission paritaire mixte et à huis clos. Ceci permettait notamment de modéré les postures partisanes et politiques des élus qui étaient alors beaucoup plus propice à s&#8217;entendre -sur les mauvais choix- et à trouver une solution politique à un problème.</p>
<p>On peut remarquer que les sociétés modernes ont pris en compte la nécessité de la transparence en démocratie. La loi joue un rôle primordial dans l&#8217;établissement de celle-ci, les médias aussi. On peut cependant s&#8217;inquiéter de la concentration des organes de presse au sein de grands groupes (Bolloré, Lagardère&#8230;) dont la collusion avec les intérêts du pouvoir ne fait pas de doute.  La presse a de plus en plus tendance à s&#8217;ériger comme chien de garde du pouvoir étatique. La lecture des différents supports de presse laisse apparaître une diffusion de l&#8217;information parcellaire, au gré des intérêts et intrications de la presse et du pouvoir faisant alors soit de la diffusion massive d&#8217;information en s&#8217;affranchissant de l&#8217;objectivité nécessaire à toute analyse s&#8217; auto-proclamant neutre, soit de la rétention d&#8217;information.</p>
<p>Ainsi de plus en plus et avec la juxtaposition du principe de visibilité et de lisibilité les données transmises à l&#8217;attention des citoyens sont quantitatives plutôt que qualitatives.</p>
<p>Nous avons ici essayé d&#8217;analyser le phénomène de transparence dans les sociétés modernes. Ainsi il a été vu que la transparence dans les sociétés modernes n&#8217;est pas seulement phénoménale, elle est le produit de la démocratisation et de la modernisation des sociétés. Celle-ci pour se répandre a aussi bénéficié de facteurs conjoncturels tels que la crise et le développement d&#8217;internet.</p>
<p>Cependant elle fait face à un certain nombre de limites et d&#8217;obstacles autant théoriques que pratiques. Il est apparu que l&#8217;Etat émet quelques réticences à démocratiser l&#8217;information au nom de différents principes plus ou moins avouables. De plus nous avons montré que dans une certaine mesure la démocratie ,du moins sa concrétisation moderne autant que traditionnelle, n&#8217;a pas vocation à diffuser la totalité voire une partie substantielle de l&#8217;information. De par ce fait et sur certains aspects la société et l&#8217;Etat apparaissent comme des institutions antagonistes qui constituent une aporie à savoir auquel doit être donné la priorité et selon quel(s) principe(s).</p>
<p>Spinoza nous dit qu&#8217; &#8221;il n&#8217;y a pas de force intrinsèque de l&#8217;idée vraie&#8221;, la vérité ne va pas toujours de soi. Ainsi on peut se questionner comme évoqué précédemment non pas sur la qualité de l&#8217;information mais sa quantité. Les chiffres ne parlent en réalité jamais d&#8217;eux-mêmes et un habile rhétoricien pourra leur faire dire ce que bon lui semble. La transparence si elle apparaît comme éminemment souhaitable et positive ne doit pas pour autant nous fourvoyer dans une foi aveugle en l&#8217;information. Il ne faut pas oublier que l&#8217;information a maintes fois était un outil d&#8217;émancipation ; elle s&#8217;est aussi avérée être dans certaines circonstances dont nous somme beaucoup moins éloignés que nous le pensons un formidable outil d&#8217;asservissement et de propagande.</p>
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